tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-76318159658648960532024-03-14T00:50:20.613-07:00KUSH TRIPATHIAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.comBlogger41125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-35555894553026579552009-12-03T01:41:00.000-08:002009-12-03T01:41:40.372-08:00BIOMEDICAL PROJECTS IDEAS 1<h1 id="title" style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Liquid Controller</h1><h1 id="title"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;">Problem Statement</span></span>-<span style="font-size: small;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;">Currently, reagents are added manually when testing cell signal functioning under a microscope. This leads to problems regarding accuracy of timing and amount. To resolve this issue, an automatic system is desired. This system will use pumps controlled by a computer interface to precisely deliver required reagents. </span></i></span></h1><h1 id="title"><span style="font-size: small;"><i><span style="font-weight: normal;"> IF ANY ONE WANTS THE PROJECT THEN HE CAN LEAVE COMMENTS<br />
</span></i></span></h1>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-81787255881808566752009-12-02T05:05:00.000-08:002009-12-02T05:05:58.360-08:00BARRON'S GRE 12TH EDITION FOR VOCABULARYIMPROVE YOUR VOCABULARY USING BARRON'S<br />
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http://www.ziddu.com/download/1510517/Barron_Gre_12th_Edition.pdf.htmlAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-3882332926365023742009-12-02T00:56:00.001-08:002009-12-02T00:56:36.697-08:00BIOMECHANICS INSTANT NOTES 2<meta content="text/html; charset=utf-8" http-equiv="Content-Type"></meta><meta content="Word.Document" name="ProgId"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 11" name="Generator"></meta><meta content="Microsoft Word 11" name="Originator"></meta><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><link href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CADMINI%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_editdata.mso" rel="Edit-Time-Data"></link><!--[if !mso]> <style>
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</style> <![endif]--> <h1>Joint replacement</h1><div class="MsoNormal"><b>Joint replacement</b> is one of the most common and successful operations in modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthopaedic_surgery" title="Orthopaedic surgery"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">orthopedic surgery</span></a>. It consists of replacing painful, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthritis" title="Arthritis"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">arthritic</span></a>, worn (or cancerous parts) of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint" title="Joint"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">joint</span></a> with artificial surfaces shaped in such a way as to allow joint movement.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">Prognosis is good to excellent in 95% of major joint replacements (hips and knees). Pain relief is especially reliable. Full recovery of range of motion is not always accomplished.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal">The abnormal bone and lining structures of the involved joint are removed surgically, and new parts are inserted in their places. These new parts may be made of special metal or plastic (certain forms of polyethylene) or specific kinds of carbon-coated implants. The new parts allow the joints to move again with little or no pain.<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600"
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</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>The following joints can be replaced-:<o:p></o:p></b><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span dir="LTR">Finger joints (the “first” joint, called the PIP joint) <span> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span dir="LTR"><span> </span>“Knuckle” joints (called MP joints, where the finger joins the hand) <b><o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51pt; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: Symbol;"><span>·<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size-adjust: none; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span dir="LTR">Wrist joints<span> </span><b><o:p></o:p></b></span><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 33pt;"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><b>Artificial joints should not be done if you have:<br />
<br />
</b>• An infection in the joint<br />
• Muscles or tendons that normally would move the involved joint are damaged and cannot be repaired to allow a new joint to work properly<br />
• Other joint replacements or hardware from other surgery that would block insertion or motion of a new implant<br />
• Problems with skin or bone quality<br />
</div><h3>Alternative procedures besides joint replacement</h3><div class="MsoNormal">• Joint injections (steroid preparations are used most commonly)<br />
• Oral medications (such as aspirin or anti-inflammatory medicines)<br />
• Physical therapy exercises and protective splints<br />
• Surgery to fuse bones together – called “arthrodesis” – which relieves pain by eliminating motion between damaged joint surfaces<br />
• Surgery on tendons or ligaments to repair related joint injuries<br />
</div><h3>Benefits of joint replacement surgery</h3>Artificial joints may help:<br />
• Reduce joint pain<br />
• Restore or maintain joint motion<br />
• Improve the look and alignment of the joint(s)<br />
• Improve overall hand function<br />
<h3>Risks of joint replacement surgery</h3><div class="MsoNormal">Implant loosening, fracture or wear that occurs over time and which may require subsequent surgery to repair or replace the damaged parts<br />
• Infection<br />
• Joint stiffness or pain, if the procedure or implant fails<br />
• Dislocation of the artificial joint<br />
• Damage to vessels, nerves or other structures in the region of the surgery<br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><br />
<div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div><div class="MsoNormal"><br />
</div>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-70007523320948707172009-12-02T00:44:00.000-08:002009-12-02T00:45:59.250-08:00BASIC CLINICAL SCIENCES INSTANT NOTES 1<b>LASERS IN ENT</b><br />
<br />
<b>Lasik eye surgery</b> is a procedure that is designed to correct poor vision. It is relatively painless and takes place in a simple office setting. This technology is unique has reduced the need for millions of people to use glasses or contact lenses. In most cases, people are able to discontinue their use all together and go about living a life with perfect vision.<br />
LASIK is a surgical procedure intended to reduce a person’s dependency on glasses or contact lenses. LASIK stands for Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis and is a procedure that permanently changes the shape of the cornea, the clear covering of the front of the eye, using an excimer laser. A knife, called a microkeratome, is used to cut a flap in the cornea. A hinge is left at one end of this flap. The flap is folded back revealing the stroma, the middlesection of the cornea. Pulses from a computer-controlled laser vaporize a portion of the stroma and the flap is replaced.<br />
<br />
<b>Type of Lasers</b><br />
The lasers that are used in Lasik eye surgery are truly unique and use exceptional technology. Excimer lasers were created specifically for Lasik. The FDA has approved each type of laser, but some lasers are better than others. The biggest difference is the way that the beam is delivered to the eye and their ability to track eye movement. <br />
There are two broad categories of laser including <b>broad beam</b> and<b> scanning</b>. There are two categories within scanning lasers including slit scanning and spot scanning.<br />
<b>Broad Beam Lasers</b><br />
Broad beam lasers utilize a large beam diameter, ranging from 6 to 8 millimeters, that cut the cornea. The use of these lasers shortens the amount of time that is necessary to complete the surgery. These lasers also reduce the risk of over correction due to pupil movement. The larger diameter makes the likelihood of complications more likely, but improved technique has eliminated most of this risk.<br />
<b>Slit Scanning Lasers</b><br />
Slit scanning lasers use smaller beams. The beam is linked to a rotational device that has slit holes to enlarge the area that is being cut. Slit scanning lasers provide a more uniform beam and create a smoother cut. There is a slightly greater chance of over correction with these lasers.<br />
<b>Spot Scanning Lasers</b><br />
Spot scanning lasers are referred to as “flying spot” lasers. These use a small beam of 0.8 to 2 millimeters. The beam is scanned across the cornea in order to create the area to be cut. Spot scanning lasers have potential to create the smoothes cut. They are also able to produce customized cuts and are able to treat irregular astigmatism.<br />
<br />
Most lasers contain an eye tracking system. This system is linked to the position of the eye. Lasers without this system make it necessary for the patient to fixate on a distant object and to keep their eyes still. There are two different type of eye-tracking systems:<br />
• <b>Open Loop</b> – monitors the pupil’s location.<br />
• B – Tracks eye movement and makes adjustments accordingly<br />
Some sort of tracking system is required as it can be difficult for patient’s to fixate on an object for a long period of time. <br />
<b>IntraLase Lasers</b><br />
The IntraLase is capable of creating the flap that needs to be cut in order to reach the cornea for shaping. The laser creates a precise pattern of small, overlapping spaces. These work at a very high speed. This allows the tissue to be target and divided at a molecular level. This laser also uses a special software that helps to guide the beam. The software instructs the beam to apply a series of bubbles on the cornea. This results in a corneal flap. The technology has helped patients with thin corneas utilize Lasik. <br />
IntraLase has far fewer complications than when microkeratomes are used. Surgeons have noticed that there is one possible complication. Some patients have a postoperative complication of being very sensitive to light after undergoing an all laser Lasik procedure. Many surgeons have also noted that this complication is only temporary and that using steroid eye drops has rectified the problem after a couple of weeks.<br />
This system is more expensive as well. The “all laser” approach can add an additional $300 per eye. Patients are often given the option between mircrokeratome or the IntraLase system. Some surgeons use IntraLase exclusively, so the cost is already included in their fee. <br />
Long-Term Effects<br />
Approximately 94% of patients have improved vision immediately after the surgery is performed. Many patients will have 20/40 vision or better after receiving Lasik surgery. There are some complications that have been reported such as:<br />
• Seeing halos around lights at nighttime<br />
• Worsened vision<br />
• Infections<br />
• Poor night vision<br />
Used for<br />
<br />
Improved vision is not the only reason that many people turn to Lasik. There are several eye conditions that Lasik can help to correct. It has been very popular for treating conditions such as:<br />
• Glaucoma<br />
• Macular degeneration<br />
• Diabetic retinopathy<br />
• Presbyopia<br />
• Astigmatism<br />
• Myopia<br />
• HyperopiaAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-39104629463536927032009-12-02T00:33:00.000-08:002009-12-02T00:33:28.821-08:00CONVERT MICROSOFT 2007 DOCX FILE TO .DOC FILETHIS TOOL IS USED TO CONVERT ALL THE DOCX FILE DIRECTLY TO .DOC FORMAT SO THAT IT CAN BE OPENED IN LOWER VERSIONS OF OFFICE<br />
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http://www.ziddu.com/download/7574399/IntroductiontoBiomechanics.pdf.htmlAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-73610328672088315772009-12-01T19:00:00.000-08:002009-12-01T19:00:57.034-08:00CLIMATE LEADERSHIP PROGRAMME-HYDERABADAP chapter of IYCN welcomes all the youth(18-30 y rs)with a minimum qualification of graduation to participate in Hyderabad Base camp. As a part of base camp they are organizing Climate Leadership program which focuses on basic training on the science behind Climate change, the negotiations, politics, solutions and the ways we can take action locally and individually. This would be followed by trainings in media, direct action and more. All the participants can bag prize money up to Rs. 30000 by sending their views in the form of ppts,slogans,videos,films or any through media on environment and climate change through mail to above mail address on or before 10th December 2009.<br />
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To avail this opportunity all you have to do is drop a mail to MR.Ranga Prasad(Regional coordinator)at above mail address or contact him at 9581000350 before 10th of December 2009 and by paying Rs.150 at the venue on 14th December 2009. So hurry and grab this opportunity before its late.<br />
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<b>ELIGIBILITY-</b>All the youth , 18-30 y rs with a minimum qualification of graduation<br />
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<b>Last date to apply</b>: <span class="keydate">December 10, 2009</span><br />
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<span class="keydate"><b>WEBSITE</b>-http://www.iycn.in/ </span>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-38226684634397075432009-12-01T18:57:00.000-08:002009-12-01T18:57:29.577-08:00NORTH-EAST BIOTECHNOLOGY STUDENTS SUMMER/WINTER TRAINING-2010<div style="text-align: justify;">On behalf of Department of Biotechnology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India, Biotech Consortium India Limited (BCIL) has come out with a training program for M.Sc./M.Tech./B.E./B.Tech. Biotechnology students of North Eastern states. The objective of this progamme is to provide industry-specific training to Biotech students for skill development and enhancing their job opportunities in biotech industry. This programme provides an opportunity to Biotech Industry for training and selecting suitable manpower. The training period is for six months during which a trainee is paid stipend of Rs.6500/- per month. A Demand Draft of Rs. 100 is to be paid along with application form.<br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"> <b>Last Date for Submitting Applications</b>: <span class="keydate">December 20, 2009</span><br />
</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="keydate"><b>WEBSITE-http://www.bcil.nic.in/</b> </span><span class="hline"></span><br />
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<br />
<br />
The Holter monitor records the heart's electrical activity through electrodes placed on the chest. The electrical impulses are then transmitted to an amplifier, which records them on a small magnetic tape or digital recorder for later review by a physician. This test provides the doctor with important information about patient's heart and its rhythm and can help identify the cause of such symptoms as chest pain, palpitations or dizziness.<br />
<br />
<img alt="HOLTER USES" src="http://www.merck.com/media/mmhe2/figures/MMHE_03_021_02.gif" width="500" /><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">The Working of Holter monitor </span><br />
<br />
An ambulatory electrocardiogram is a portable recording of the heart rhythm taken during patient's normal activities. It is entirely painless and none of the equipment enters his/her body. It monitors his/her heart's electrical activity as detected on the surface of the skin, transmits this signal to an amplifier, and saves a record of the electrocardiogram on a small magnetic tape or digital recorder for subsequent review and analysis. Following completion of the monitoring period, the tape is scanned by a technician.<br />
<br />
<img alt=" HOLTER SYSTEM" src="http://www.nasiff.com/IMG_2306Holter%20Current%20box%20%28crop%29.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
Ambulatory electrocardiograph has been available since the early 1950s, when Dr. Holter introduced his portable electrocardiogram to the medical community. Since that time, these devices have decreased in size and weight, but have increased in sophistication.<br />
<br />
<img alt="Dr.HOLTER" src="http://www.ishne-spain.org/holter2.JPG" width="500" /><br />
<em><strong>(DR. NORMAN J.HOLTER)</strong></em><br />
<br />
The <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_first" name="AdBriteInlineAd_first" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">first</a> devices had to be worn in a backpack, and despite their large size and weight, could only review the heart along one axis (one direction).<br />
<br />
<img alt="HOLTER TAPE RECORDER" src="http://www.medcatalog.com/images/TCL/TPIC4A.JPG" width="500" /><br />
<em><strong>(CASSETTE HOLTER RECORDER)</strong></em><br />
<br />
Modern devices can look at the heart along several different axes, and their weight and size are such that they do not interfere with your normal activities.<br />
<br />
<img alt="FLASH CARD HOLTER RECORDER" src="http://www.medicalsolutionsinc.com/productimages/Burdick%2092513.jpg" width="400" /><br />
<em><strong>(MODERN FLASH CARD HOLTER RECORDER)</strong></em><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Information obtained by the Holter monitor </span><br />
<br />
When applied to the patient's chest, the Holter monitor can identify any abnormal heart rhythms or rate. It picks up skipped heartbeats, as well as those that are excessively fast or slow. Under some circumstances, the test can identify whether the heart has a sufficient supply of blood and so help your physician determine if there are blockages or constrictions in the coronary arteries (the blood vessels that supply blood to the heart). Thus, if patient has had chest pain, or episodes of fainting or dizziness, this test will show what happens to his/her heart while he/she has these symptoms. If patient is taking medication for a heart condition, the test <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_helps" name="AdBriteInlineAd_helps" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">helps</a> evaluate how well it is <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_working" name="AdBriteInlineAd_working" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">working</a>. If he/she is using a temporary or permanent pacemaker (a device that helps to regulate the heart rhythm), the Holter monitor can detect whether it is working properly.<br />
<br />
<img alt="HOLTER ECG INFORMATION" src="http://www.medata.us/ebay/tracer2.jpg" width="550" /><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">How the test is done </span><br />
<br />
First, the technician shaves the hair off the areas where the electrodes (sticky patches that detect the heart's electrical signals) are to be placed. After shaving, the skin is cleaned with a <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_fat" name="AdBriteInlineAd_fat" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">fat</a> degreaser to remove any oil from the skin so the electrodes will have better contact and not fall off during the test. Next, an antiperspirant is wiped over the shaved area to prevent perspiration from loosening the electrodes. Finally, the electrodes are applied to patient's chest.<br />
<br />
<img alt="HOLTER LEADS" src="http://www.instituutrenata.com/images/holterreg.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
The number of wires and electrodes applied depends upon the number of "leads" (the angle from which the heart is viewed), the physician feels should be monitored. Often this may require as many as five or six electrode patches with their accompanying wires. Each electrode and wire unit is placed in a specific place on the chest. It is important that the electrodes remain stable once attached. After they are securely fixed to patient chest, the excess wire is taped to the skin to prevent their accidental disconnection. Next, the technician checks the system to be sure that it is working properly. The monitor is connected to an electrocardiogram recorder to determine if the ambulatory electrocardiogram provides a high quality tracing free of excessive "noise" or electrical interference. The patient may be asked to move around, to sit, stand, lie down, bend, and breathe deeply, to provide a baseline <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_reading" name="AdBriteInlineAd_reading" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">reading</a> of the heartbeat and to assure that simple movement does not interfere with the recording.<br />
<br />
The cassette tape or digital recorder is then tested and a battery inserted into the device. The patient can wear the tape recorder either on your belt or over his/her shoulder, depending on the model used.<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">The diary card </span><br />
<br />
The last and most important part of the test is the diary <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_card" name="AdBriteInlineAd_card" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">card</a>, the patient will be asked to fill out. On this card the patient record his/her activities and symptoms during the <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_day" name="AdBriteInlineAd_day" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">day</a> of monitoring. This is an extremely important part of the test since it enables the technician to correlate patient's heart electrical activity with his/her symptoms and activities. If the patient do not write anything in the diary, it may be impossible for doctor to determine the cause of any abnormalities and the test may have to be repeated. The information needed on the diary card includes the day, time, type of activity performed (running, walking, grocery shopping, etc.), and any symptoms you experience. Be certain to fill the diary out correctly and carefully. The test <a href="" id="AdBriteInlineAd_generally" name="AdBriteInlineAd_generally" style="-moz-background-clip: border; -moz-background-inline-policy: continuous; -moz-background-origin: padding; background: transparent url(http://files.adbrite.com/mb/images/green-double-underline-006600.gif) repeat-x scroll center bottom; color: #006600; cursor: pointer; margin-bottom: -2px; padding-bottom: 2px; text-decoration: none;" target="_top">generally</a> lasts from 24 to 48 hours, depending on the period of time specified by doctor.<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Follow-up </span><br />
<br />
<img alt="HOLTER SCANNING" src="http://www.landcom.com.cn/images/pro/12-3_Holter.gif" /><br />
<br />
After completion of the test, the patient will be asked to return to the laboratory for removal of the device. At this point, only half the test is completed. The last half of the test consists of an analysis by a technician of the 24-48 hours of tracings via a rapid scanning device. <br />
<br />
<img alt="HOLTER MEMORY CARD CONNECTION TO PC" src="http://www.medicalsolutionsinc.com/productimages/QRS%20OxiCard.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
Subsequently, the technician records any abnormal segments of the tracing, or those during which patient recorded symptoms in his/her diary. The technician's report and the pertinent printouts of the electrocardiogram are then sent to the physician.<br />
<br />
<img alt="HOLTER ECG REPORT" src="http://www.iranep.org/images/A%20ct%20s.jpg" width="500" />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-72229451842447373772009-12-01T06:09:00.000-08:002009-12-01T06:09:00.051-08:00BLOOD PRESSURE MONITOR<a href="" name="9118841834372782119"></a> Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) measures blood pressure at regular intervals throughout the day and night. It is believed to be able to reduce the white coat hypertension effect.<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>BLOOD PRESSURE & HYPERTENSION</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD PRESSURE" src="http://www.lifespan.org/adam/graphics/images/en/9124.jpg" /><br />
<br />
Blood pressure is the force that pushes blood through the blood vessels in your body. In people who have high blood pressure, blood is pushed through the blood vessels with greater force than normal. Another word for high blood pressure is "hypertension."<br />
<br />
<img alt="HYPERTENSION SYSTOLE 140 & DIASTOLE 90+" src="http://www.wxii12.com/2006/0209/6867149.jpg" /><br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>CAUSES OF HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
1.)A diet high in fat and cholesterol<br />
2.)Not exercising regularly or not exercising hard enough<br />
3.)Being overweight<br />
4.)A family history of high blood pressure<br />
5.)Tobacco use<br />
6.)Stress<br />
7.)Some birth control medicines<br />
8.)Kidney and hormone problems<br />
<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>SYSTOLE & DIASTOLE</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
<img alt="SYSTOLE & DIASTOLE IN HEART" src="http://www.everybody.co.nz/admin/UserImages/479a5f19-d8cb-44a3-ac5e-544e695f8f20.jpg" /><br />
<br />
Blood pressure is recorded as two numbers separated by a slash, like 120/80. The first number is the systolic (say: "sis-tol-ik") pressure; it is the force when the heart pumps. The second number is the diastolic (say: "die-uh-stol-ik") pressure; it is the force when the heart relaxes between beats.<br />
<br />
<img alt="SYSTOLE, DIASTOLE" src="http://www.merck.com/media/mmhe2/figures/fg025_1.gif" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>SYSTOLIC & DIASTOLIC READINGS</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
Knowing both of your blood pressure readings can help your doctor tell if you have high blood pressure. Your doctor will want you to keep your usual blood pressure lower than 140/90. If you have diabetes, your doctor will want you to keep your blood pressure lower than 130/85.<br />
<br />
<img alt="NORMAL,HIGH BP VALUES" src="http://www.natap.org/2006/images/042406/blood-1.gif" /><br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>EFFECTS OF HIGH BP ON BODY PARTS</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
High blood pressure can damage many parts of the body. If patient has high blood pressure, he/she has a higher risk for stroke, heart disease, heart attacks and kidney failure. Control of the blood pressure can reduce these risks.<br />
<br />
<img alt="HYPERTENSIVE HEART" src="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/9699.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="EFFECTS OF HIGH BP ON BODY PARTS-3" src="http://www.healthcentral.com/common/images/1/18166_3676_5.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="EFFECTS OF HIGH BP ON BODY PARTS-2" src="http://www.patienthealthinternational.com/sites/35/imagebank/typeArticleparam519633/hbp-figure.gif" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="EFFECTS OF HIGH BP ON BODY PARTS-1" src="http://stb.msn.com/i/1A/EB74A6DC95D970325F7216BB9BD2B4.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>ASSESSMENT & DIAGNOSIS OF HYPERTENSIVE PATIENTS</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
<a href="http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1087/1104934647_bb9f5c0533_o.jpg" target="new"><img src="http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1087/1104934647_138dc4459a.jpg" /></a><br />
(CLICK IMAGE TO ENLARGE)<br />
<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>AMBULATORY BP MONITOR</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
<img alt="AMBULATORY BP MONITOR, ABPM" src="http://www.miami-med.com/images/6100a.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
It is a small machine, about the size of a portable radio. The Patient will wear it on a belt. The blood pressure cuff on the monitor can be worn under his/her clothes without anyone seeing it. The picture to thebelow shows a person wearing an ambulatory blood pressure monitor.<br />
<br />
<img alt="AMBULATORY BP" src="http://www.pmsinstruments.co.uk/graphics/TM-2430_Man.gif" width="500" /><br />
<br />
This machine lets doctor find out what patient's blood pressure was every 15 to 30 minutes of a normal day.The information collected by this machine can help patient and doctor see if the blood pressure treatment is working.<br />
<br />
The doctor may want patient to use an ambulatory blood pressure monitor for one or more of the following reasons:<br />
<br />
1.)If patient has "borderline" high blood pressure<br />
2.)If patient and doctor can't keep your blood pressure under control<br />
3.)If patient has blood pressure problems caused by other medicines<br />
4.)If patient is pregnant and has high blood pressure<br />
5.)If patient has fainting spells<br />
<br />
The monitor may help doctor find out if patient is a person who only has high blood pressure when you are at the doctor's office. This is called "white-coat hypertension." If patient has this kind of hypertension, he/she may not need to take medicine.<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>WORK OF AMBULATORY BP MONITOR ON PATIENT</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
The small blood pressure cuff that is connected to the monitor will automatically check patient's blood pressure about every 30 minutes, even while he/she is sleeping. The patient also will be asked to keep a diary of his/her day's activities, so doctor will know when he/she was active and when she/she was resting. Some people feel a little sore from the frequent pressure checks. Some people get a rash, but it usually goes away without treatment.<br />
<br />
After 24 hours of monitoring, patient will take the machine and diary to the doctor's office. The blood pressure information is transferred from the monitor to a computer or an analyzer. The computer helps the doctor make sense of the information. Your doctor will review the information with you and decide if your treatment program is working or if you need to make changes to it.<br />
<br />
<img alt="AMBULATORY BP ANALYZER" src="http://www.medcatalog.com/T_Z/xabp.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="AMBULATORY 24 HOUR BP GRAPH" src="https://secure.pharmacytimes.com/lessons/images/200503-03/20050303f4.gif" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>ADVICE FOR HIGH BP PATIENTS</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
<img alt="CHECK BP FREQUENT" src="http://www.lifespan.org/adam/graphics/images/en/8693.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="BP CHECKUP" src="http://www.healthcentral.com/common/images/1/19255_8370_5.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="REGULAR MEDIATIONS" src="http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/hbp/images/19258.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="EXERCISE DAILY FOR LOWERING BP" src="http://www.clickondetroit.com/2006/0209/6867287.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="HIGH BP MEDICATIONS" src="http://medweb.bham.ac.uk/easdec/prevention/images/bpcycle.jpg" />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-39660082772506386642009-12-01T06:06:00.000-08:002009-12-01T06:06:29.284-08:00BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING<img alt="BLOOD IN GLUCOMETER STRIP" src="http://www.diabetes.com.au/images/data/1115597576.gif" /><br />
<br />
Blood glucose monitoring is a way of testing how much glucose is in the blood (glycemia).<br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD PLACEMENT IN BLOOD GLUCOSE METER" src="http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/monitoring-your-glucose-ga-2.jpg.jpg" /><br />
<br />
i.)This is important in the care of diabetes mellitus. Most people with Type 2 diabetes need to test at least once per day (usually before breakfast) to assess the effectiveness of their diet and exercise for controlling their blood glucose levels. Many people with Type 2 are using an oral medication to combat their insulin resistance, and must test their blood glucose before and after breakfast to assess the effectiveness of their dosage.<br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITOR" src="http://www.alegent.com/adam/careguides/diabetes/images/19211.jpg" /><br />
<br />
ii.)All people who need to inject insulin, both for Type 1 diabetes and Type 2, need also to test their blood sugar more often (3 to 10 times per day) to assess the effectiveness of their prior insulin dose and to calculate their next insulin dose.<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;">DIABETES MELLITUS TYPE 1</span></u><br />
<br />
<img alt="PANCREAS LOCATION" src="http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/Pilsinl/124.gif" /><br />
<br />
Diabetes mellitus type 1 (Type 1 diabetes, Type I diabetes, T1D, IDDM) is a form of diabetes mellitus. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that results in the permanent destruction of insulin producing beta cells of the pancreas.<br />
<br />
<img alt="PANCREAS" src="http://www.lifespan.org/adam/graphics/images/en/19264.jpg" /><br />
<br />
Type 1 is lethal unless treatment with exogenous insulin via injections replaces the missing hormone.<br />
<br />
<img alt="INSULIN & PANCREAS" src="http://www.lifespan.org/adam/graphics/images/en/19200.jpg" /><br />
<u><span style="color: blue;">DIABETES MELLITUS TYPE 2</span></u><br />
Diabetes mellitus type 2 (formerly called diabetes mellitus type II, non insulin-dependent diabetes (NIDDM), obesity related diabetes, or adult-onset diabetes) is a metabolic disorder that is primarily characterized by insulin resistance, relative insulin deficiency, and hyperglycemia.<br />
<br />
<img alt="NIDDM TYPE2 DIABETES MELLITUS" src="http://medweb.bham.ac.uk/easdec/prevention/images/type2causes.jpg" /><br />
<br />
It is often managed by engaging in exercise and modifying one's diet.<br />
It is rapidly increasing in the developed world, and there is some evidence that this pattern will be followed in much of the rest of the world in coming years.<br />
<br />
Improved technology for measuring blood glucose is rapidly changing the standards of care for all diabetic people. There are several methods of blood glucose testing currently available.<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;">CHEMICAL TEST STRIPS </span></u><br />
<br />
Chemical test strips are a low cost method for monitoring blood glucose. A fairly large drop of blood, usually taken from the fingertip, is placed on a chemically prepared strip, called a blood glucose testing strip.The strip chemistry will cause it to change color according to the amount of glucose is in the blood.<br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD GLUCOSE STRIPS" src="http://www.betachek.com/images/BV_Steps.jpg" /><br />
<br />
One can tell if their level of blood glucose is low, high, or normal by comparing the color on the end of the strip to a color chart that is printed on the side of the test strip container.<br />
<br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD GLUCOSE STRIP COLOR CHART-2" src="http://faculty.washington.edu/kepeter/119/images/glucose_test.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="GLUCOSE TEST STRIP COLOR" src="http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/clientED/images/ketodia.jpg" /><br />
<br />
These are recommended only for people who are occasionally monitoring their blood glucose level (prediabetic or type 2) and are not using insulin.<br />
<br />
<a href="http://www.betachek.com/new_BV.htm" target="NEW">The Betachek Diabetes Test Strips</a><br />
<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;">BLOOD GLUCOSE METERS</span></u><br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD GLUCOSE METER OPERATION" src="http://www.lifespan.org/adam/graphics/images/en/17152.jpg" /><br />
<br />
A blood glucose meter is an electronic device for measuring the blood glucose level. A relatively small drop of blood is placed on a disposable test strip which interfaces with a digital meter. Within several seconds, the level of blood glucose will be shown on the digital display.<br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD FOR GLUCOSE MONITOR" src="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/19912.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="DIGITAL BLOOD GLUCOSE METER DISPLAY" src="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/19914.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="BLOOD GLUCOSE METER ACCESSORIES" src="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/19839.jpg" /><br />
<br />
While more expensive, blood glucose meters seem a breakthrough in diabetes self care. As the drops of blood needed for the meter become smaller, the pain associated with testing is reduced and the compliance of diabetic people to their testing regimens is improved. Although the cost of using blood glucose meters seems high, it is believed to be a cost benefit relative to the avoided medical costs of the complications of diabetes.<br />
<br />
A recent and welcome advance is the use of small blood drops for blood glucose testing from other places than the finger tips.<br />
<br />
<img src="http://www.bddiabetes.com/resource.aspx?IDX=1915" width="500" /><br />
<br />
This alternate site testing uses the same test strips and meter, is practically pain free, and gives the real estate on the finger tips a needed break if they become sore.<br />
<br />
(ALTERNATE SITE GLUCOSE TEST- BLOOD TAKEN FROM FOREARM INSTEAD OF FINGER)<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">CONTINUOUS BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING (AMBULATORY)</span><br />
<br />
A continuous blood glucose monitor determines blood glucose levels on a continuous basis (every few minutes). A typical system consists of:<br />
<br />
i.)a disposable glucose sensor placed just under the skin, which is worn for a few days until replacement,<br />
<br />
<img alt="CONTINUOUS GLUCOSE SENSOR" src="http://www.medtronic-diabetes.co.uk/images/x22_features_callout.jpg" width="600" /><br />
(A-INSULIN PUMP, B-CANNULA, C-TINY GLUCOSE SENSOR, D-REAL TIME TRANSMITTER)<br />
<br />
ii.)a link from the sensor to a non-implanted transmitter which communicates to a radio receiver,<br />
iii.)an electronic receiver worn like a pager (or insulin pump) that displays blood glucose levels on a practically continuous manner, as well as monitors rising and falling trends in glycemic excursions.<br />
<br />
<img alt="INSULIN PUMP" src="http://www.childrenwithdiabetes.com/ada2003/pics/cozmonitor.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="CONTINUOUS BLLOD GLUCOSE MONITOR" src="http://www.minimed.com/images/pf_ipt_paradigm_pump_x15_large.jpg" /><br />
<br />
Continuous blood glucose monitors measure the glucose level of interstitial fluid. Disadvantages compared to traditional blood glucose monitoring are:<br />
<br />
i.)continuous systems must be calibrated with a traditional blood glucose measurement (using current technology) and therefore do not yet fully replace "fingerstick" measurements.<br />
ii.)glucose levels in interstitial fluid lag temporally behind behind blood glucose values.<br />
<br />
Patients therefore require traditional fingerstick measurements for calibration (typically twice per day) and are often advised to use fingerstick measurements to confirm hypo- or hyperglycemia before taking corrective action.<br />
<br />
The lag time discussed above has been reported to be about 5 minutes.Anecdotally, some users of the various systems report lag times of up to 10-15 minutes. This lag time is insignificant when blood sugar levels are relatively consistent. However, blood sugar levels, when changing rapidly, may read in the normal range on a CGM system while in reality the patient is already experiencing symptoms of an out-of-range blood glucose value and may require treatment. Patients using CGM are therefore advised to consider both the absolute value of the blood glucose level given by the system as well as any trend in the blood glucose levels. For example, a patient using CGM with a blood glucose of 100 mg/dl on their CGM system might take no action if their blood glucose has been consistent for several readings, while a patient with the same blood glucose level but whose blood glucose has been dropping steeply in a short period of time might be advised to perform a fingerstick test to check for hypoglycemia.<br />
<br />
Continuous monitoring allows examination of how the blood glucose level reacts to insulin, exercise, food, and other factors. The additional data can be useful for setting correct insulin dosing ratios for food intake and correction of hyperglycemia. Monitoring during periods when blood glucose levels are not typically checked (e.g. overnight) can help to identify problems in insulin dosing (such as basal levels for insulin pump users or long-acting insulin levels for patients taking injections). Monitors may also be equipped with alarms to alert patients of hyperglycemia or hypoglycemia so that a patient can take corrective action(s) (after fingerstick testing, if necessary) even in cases where they do not feel symptoms of either condition. While the technology has its limitations, studies have demonstrated that patients with continuous sensors experience less hyperglycemia and also reduce their glycated hemoglobin levels.<br />
<br />
Currently, continuous blood glucose monitoring is not automatically covered by health insurance in the United States in the same way that most other diabetic supplies are covered (e.g. standard glucose testing supplies, insulin, and even insulin pumps). However, an increasing number of insurance companies do cover continuous glucose monitoring supplies (both the receiver and disposable sensors) on a case-by-case basis if the patient and doctor show a specific need. The lack of insurance coverage is exacerbated by the fact that disposable sensors must be frequently replaced (sensors by Dexcom and Minimed have been FDA approved for 7- and 3-day use, respectively, though some patients wear sensors for longer than the recommended period) and the receiving meters likewise have finite lifetimes (less than 2 years and as little as 6 months). This is one factor in the slow uptake in the use of sensors that have been marketed in the United States.<br />
<br />
Some current and future continuous glucose monitoring products include:<br />
i.)<a href="http://www.abbottdiabetescare.com/adc_dotcom/url/content/en_US/10.10:10/general_content/General_Content_0000163.htm" target="NEW">The Freestyle Navigator</a><br />
ii.)<a href="http://www.minimed.com/products/insulinpumps/index.html" target="NEW">Minimed Paradigm insulin pump plus a continuous sensor</a><br />
iii.)<a href="http://www.minimed.com/products/guardian/" target="NEW">The Guardian by Minimed</a><br />
iv.)<a href="http://www.dexcom.com/html/dexcom_products.html" target="NEW">Dexcom STS</a><br />
v.)<a href="http://www.menarini.com/english/index2.html" target="NEW">GlucoDay S</a><br />
<br />
See this <a href="http://www.childrenwithdiabetes.com/continuous.htm" target="'new">summary</a> by a diabetes support group for a review of CBGM products, performance, and features.<br />
<br />
This technology is an important component in the effort to develop a closed-loop system connecting real-time automatic control of an insulin pump based on immediate blood glucose data from the sensor. One important goal is to develop an algorithm for automatic control, by which the system would function as an artificial pancreas. Although sensor reliability is more than adequate to improve outcomes for patients when used in an "open-loop" setting where the patient makes judgments about delivery of insulin, it is clearly not ready to be used as part of a closed loop system. FDA had approved the technology for use only in combination with fingerstick testing, and patients are expected to make judgments about treatment only after taking a fingerstick test. Therefore it is overly optimistic to think that these devices will be part of a closed loop system in the near future.<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>GLUCOSE SENSING BIOIMPLANTS</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
Longer term solutions to continuous monitoring, not yet available but under development, use a long-lasting bio-implant. These systems promise to ease the burden of blood glucose monitoring for their users, but at the trade off of a minor surgical implantation of the sensor that lasts from one year to more than five years depending on the product selected.<br />
<br />
Products under development include:<br />
i.)<a href="http://www.s4ms.com/products_glucose.htm" target="NEW">The SMSI Glucose Sensor</a><br />
ii.)<a href="http://www.animascorp.com/animas2020/" target="NEW">The Animas Glucose Sensor</a><br />
iii.)<a href="http://www.sybd.com/" target="NEW">Implanted Glucose Bio-sensor</a><br />
iv.)<a href="http://www.dexcom.com/" target="NEW">The Dexcom LTS (long term system)</a><br />
<br />
<br />
<u><span style="color: blue;"><strong>NON INVASIVE BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING TECHNOLOGY</strong></span></u><br />
<br />
Some new technologies to monitor blood glucose levels will not require access to blood to read the glucose level. Non-invasive technologies include near IR detection, ultrasound and dielectric spectroscopy. These will free the person with diabetes from finger sticks to supply the drop of blood for blood glucose analysis.<br />
<br />
<img alt="NON INVASIVE GLUCOSE MONITOR" src="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/fig/0870250301002.png" width="500" /><br />
<br />
Most of the non-invasive methods under development are continuous glucose monitoring methods and offer the advantage of providing additional information to the subject between the conventional finger stick, blood glucose measurements and over time periods where no finger stick measurements are available (i.e. while the subject is sleeping).<br />
<br />
<img alt="NON-INVASIVE GLUCOSE TESTING" src="http://www.diabetologica.com/non-invasive-glucose.jpg" /><br />
<br />
Products under development include:<br />
i.)Fovioptics retinal glucose analyzer<br />
ii.)<a href="http://www.inlightsolutions.com/" target="new">Inlight Solutions, NIR glucose sensor</a><br />
iii.)<a href="http://www.nirdiagnostics.com/" target="new">NIR Diagnostics, NIR glucose sensor</a><br />
iv.)<a href="http://www.sensysmedical.com/technology/index.html" target="new">Sinsys Medical GTS</a><br />
v.)<a href="http://www.solianis.com/cms/index.php?id=7,7,0,0,1,0" target="new">Solianis Monitoring AG</a><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><u>VARIOUS MODELS OF MODERN GLUCOMETER</u></span><br />
<br />
<img alt="PRESTIGEX GLUCOMETER" src="http://www.diabeticsystems.com/productimg/prestigelx.gif" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<img alt="ACCUCHECK GLUCOMETER" src="http://www.medicalsupplygroup.com/images/products/BIO30802.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="COMBINED BP & GLUCOMETER" src="http://img.alibaba.com/photo/11115254/Blood_Pressure___Glucose_Monitor.jpg" width="500" /><br />
(COMBINED DIGITAL BP MONITOR & GLUCOMETER")<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><u>SYMPTOMS,TESTS & ADVICE FOR DIABETIC PATIENTS</u></span><br />
HYPERGLYCEMIA(HIGH BLOOD GLUCOSE) & HYPOGLYCEMIA (LOW BLOOD GLUCOSE) SYMPTOMS<br />
<br />
(HYPERGLYCEMIA)<br />
<br />
<img alt="LOW BLOOD SUGAR SYMPTOMS" src="http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/diabetes2/images/19728.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt=" DIABETIC PATIENT FOOD" src="http://www.pennhealth.com/health_info/diabetes2/images/19730.jpg" /><br />
This method of treating low blood sugars is called the 15:15 rule. Eat 15 grams of carbohydrate and wait 15 minutes<br />
<br />
3.)Fasting plasma glucose test -- this is the simplest and fastest way to measure blood glucose and diagnose diabetes. Fasting means that you have had nothing to eat or drink (except water) for 8 to 12 hours before the test. You are diagnosed with diabetes if your blood glucose level is 126 mg/dl or greater on two separate tests.<br />
4.)Oral glucose tolerance test -- your blood glucose is tested two hours after drinking 75 grams of glucose. You are diagnosed with diabetes if your blood glucose level is 200 mg/dl or greater.<br />
<br />
<img alt="ORAL GLUCOSE TEST2" src="http://www.lifespan.org/adam/graphics/images/en/19197.jpg" /><br />
<br />
5.)A person with type 2 diabetes can use exercise to help control their blood sugar levels and provide energy their muscles need to function throughout the day. By maintaining a healthy diet and sufficient exercise, a person with type 2 diabetes may be able to keep their blood sugar in the normal non-diabetic range without medication.<br />
<br />
<img alt="EXERCISE GLUCOSE" src="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/19811.jpg" /><br />
(BEFORE & AFTER EXERCISES)<br />
<br />
6.)RISKS OF DIABETES<br />
<img alt="RISKS OF DIABETES" src="http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/images/ency/fullsize/9273.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="HIGH INSULIN" src="http://medicalimages.allrefer.com/large/food-and-insulin-release.jpg" />Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-65498494017195130522009-12-01T05:41:00.000-08:002009-12-01T05:41:01.880-08:00robotics surgery<img alt="ROBOT SURGERY CART" src="http://www.houstoncardiacsurgery.com/images/Accents/patient_cart_robot.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
Robotic surgery is the use of robots in performing surgery.<br />
<br />
<img alt="robotic surgery" src="http://www.spineuniverse.com/displaygraphic.php/1426/intuit1-BB.jpg" /><br />
(ROBOTIC SURGERY)<br />
<br />
Three major advances aided by surgical robots are :<br />
<br />
i.)Remote Surgery<br />
<br />
<img alt="REMOTE ROBOT SURGERY" src="http://www.nextgenmd.org/vol2-5/pictures/davinci1.jpg" width="500" /><br />
(REMOTE ROBOT SURGERY)<br />
<br />
ii.)Minimally invasive Surgery<br />
<br />
<img alt="MINIMAL INVASIVE SURGERY" src="http://www.roboticurology.com/Minimally_Invasive_Robotic_Surgery/Robotic_Surgery_02.jpg" width="500" /><br />
(Minimal Invasive Robot Surgery)<br />
<br />
iii.)Unmanned Surgery. <br />
(UNMANNED ROBOT SURGERY)<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTIC SURGERY :</strong></span><br />
<br />
Major potential advantages of robotic surgery are <br />
<br />
i.)Precision and Miniaturization. <br />
ii.)Articulation beyond normal manipulation and <br />
iii.)Three-dimensional magnification. <br />
<br />
Some surgical robots are autonomous, not under control of a surgeon.<br />
<br />
<img alt="CONCEPTS OF ROBOTIC SURGERY" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d3/CVoverview2.jpg" width="500" /><br />
(VARIOUS CONCEPTS IN AUTOMATIC CONTROL ROBOTS)<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>HISTORY OF ROBOTIC SURGERY</strong></span><br />
<br />
In 1985 a robot, the PUMA 560, was used to place a needle for a brain biopsy using CT guidance.<br />
<br />
<img alt="PUMA 560 ROBOTS" src="http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/robert.bicker/puma561.JPG" /><br />
(PUMA 560 ROBOT)<br />
<br />
In 1988, the PROBOT, developed at Imperial College London, was used to perform prostatic surgery. <br />
<br />
<img alt="PROBOT ROBOT" src="http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/portal/pls/portallive/docs/1/5633906.GIF" width="300" /><br />
(PROBOT ROBOT)<br />
<br />
The ROBODOC from Integrated Surgical Systems was introduced in 1992 to mill out precise fittings in the femur for hip replacement. <br />
<br />
<img alt="ROBODOC ROBOT HIP SURGERY" src="http://www.dkimages.com/discover/previews/869/10056455.JPG" width="500" /><br />
(ROBODOC ROBOT HIP SURGERY)<br />
<br />
Further development of robotic systems was carried out by Intuitive Surgical with the introduction of the da Vinci Surgical System and Computer Motion with the AESOP and the ZEUS robotic surgical system.<br />
<br />
<img alt="DA VINCI SURGICAL SYSTEM ROBOT" src="http://www2.mdanderson.org/depts/oncolog/assets/images/06-10-1a.jpg" /><br />
(DA VINCI SURGICAL SYSTEM ROBOT)<br />
<br />
Intuitive Surgical purchased Computer Motion in 1994 and discontinued development of the ZEUS System.<br />
<br />
DA VINCI SURGICAL SYSTEM<br />
<br />
<img alt="DA VINCI SURGICAL SYSTEM" src="http://www.intuitivesurgical.com/www/site1/products/davinci_surgicalsystem/dvs_hd_surg_nur450x259.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
The da Vinci Surgical System is comprised of three components: a surgeon’s console, a patient-side robotic cart with four arms manipulated by the surgeon, and a high-definition 3D vision system. Articulating surgical instruments are mounted on the robotic arms which are introduced into the body through cannulas. The surgeon’s hand movements are scaled and filtered to eliminate hand tremor then translated into micro-movements of the proprietary instruments. <br />
<br />
<img alt="DA VINCI ROBOT COMPONENTS" src="http://www.teleroboticsurgeons.com/davinci2.jpg" /><br />
<span style="color: blue;">(DA VINCI ROBOT SYSTEM, A- SURGEON CONSOLE, B- 3D VISION SYSTEM, C- PATIENT SIDE ROBOT CART WITH 4 ARMS)</span><br />
(DA VINCI ROBOT ARMS)<br />
(VIEW OF DA VINCI ROBOT SYSTEM SURGERY)<br />
<br />
The da Vinci System is FDA cleared for a variety of surgical procedures including surgery for prostate cancer, hysterectomy and mitral valve repair and used in more than 800 hospitals in the Americas and Europe. The da Vinci System was used in 48,000 procedures in 2006 and sells for about $1.2 million.<br />
<br />
In May 1998, Dr. Friedrich-Wilhelm Mohr using the Da Vinci surgical robot performed the first robotically assisted heart bypass at the Leipzig Heart Centre in Germany.<br />
<br />
In 2001, Marescaux used the Zeus robot to perform a cholecystectomy on a patient in Strasbourg, France while in New York.<br />
<br />
The first unmanned robotic surgery took place in May 2006 in Italy.<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong><u>Applications</u></strong></span><br />
<br />
<img alt=" OPERATIVE SYSTEM IN ROBOT SURGERY" src="http://www.bmt.tue.nl/opleiding/ogo/0102/3ejaar/davinci.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>Cardiac surgery</strong></span><br />
<br />
Endoscopic coronary bypass surgery and mitral valve replacement have been performed. Totally closed chest, endoscopic mitral valve surgeries are being performed now with the robot.<br />
<br />
<img alt="ROBOT IN CARDIAC SURGERY" src="http://www.fac.org.ar/scvc/llave/surgery/fonger/fonf10.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>Gastrointestinal surgery</strong></span><br />
<br />
Multiple types of procedures have been performed with either the Zeus or da Vinci robot systems, including bariatric surgery.<br />
<br />
<img alt="GASTROINTESTINAL BARIATIC ROBOT SURGERY" src="http://laparoscopy.blogs.com/laparoscopy_today/images/5-1/AhleringFigure2.jpg" width="500" /><br />
(GASTROINTESTINAL BARIATIC ROBOT SURGERY)<br />
<br />
<br />
<img alt="SURGICAL ROBOT PARTS" src="http://www.medsys.be/images/tech/lapman1.png" width="550" /><br />
(SURGICAL ROBOT PARTS)<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>Gynecology</strong></span><br />
<br />
Reproductive surgery and ablative surgery including hysterectomy have been performed.<br />
<br />
<img alt="GYNECOLOGY SURGERY ROBOT" src="http://seekingalpha.com/wp-content/seekingalpha/images/isrgchart.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<img alt="GYNECOLOGY SURGERY ROBOT INCISIONS" src="http://www.chatgynonc.com/images/robot_hysterectomy.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>Neurosurgery</strong></span><br />
<br />
Several systems for stereotactic intervention are currently on the market.<br />
<br />
<br />
<img alt="BRAIN NEUROSURGICAL ROBOTS" src="http://www.gearlive.com/blogimages/robotx.jpg" width="500" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>Orthopedics</strong></span><br />
<br />
The ROBODOC system was released in 1992 by the Integrated Surgical Systems, Inc.<br />
<br />
<img alt="ORTHOPEDIC ROBOT SURGERY" src="http://www.sciencedaily.com/images/2006/02/060208163546.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;"><strong>Pediatrics</strong></span><br />
<br />
Surgical robotics has been used in many types of pediatric surgical procedures including: <br />
i.)Tracheoesophageal fistula repair, <br />
ii.)Cholecystectomy, <br />
iii.)Nissen fundoplication, <br />
iv.)Morgagni hernia repair, <br />
v.)Kasai portoenterostomy, <br />
vi.)Congenital diaphragmatic hernia repair, and others. <br />
<br />
(SURGICAL ROBOT ARMS)<br />
<br />
On January 17, 2002, surgeons at Children's Hospital of Michigan in Detroit performed the nation's first advanced computer-assisted robot-enhanced surgical procedure at a children's hospital.<br />
<br />
<br />
For more Robotic Surgery Articles, Visit <br />
1.) <a href="http://www.cts.usc.edu/roboticsurgery.html" target="new">Robotic Surgery Institute</a><br />
2.)<a href="http://www.houstoncardiacsurgery.com/Robotic_Surgery.html" target="new">Cardiac Surgery Associates</a>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-51095521853301679842009-12-01T05:37:00.001-08:002009-12-01T05:38:25.551-08:00infant incubators <img alt="INFANT INCUBATOR" src="http://www.hosco.co.in/pcat-gifs/products-small/INCUBETOR.jpg" /><br />
(INFANT INCUBATOR)<br />
<br />
An infant incubator is used mainly to keep a baby’s core temperature stable at 37 degrees Celsius. Most incubators also humidify the air and can add extra oxygen.<br />
<br />
<img alt="INFANT INCUBATOR WITH BABY" src="http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/targets/images/pho/t040/T040757A.jpg" width="400" /><br />
(INFANT INCUBATOR WITH BABY)<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">NEED OF INFANT INCUBATORS</span><br />
<br />
The core temperature of the human body needs to be kept at a constant temperature of 37 degrees Celsius. If the temperature goes too high or too low, then the organs can be damaged and illness or death can result. Premature babies (babies born before they are due to be born) have undeveloped nervous systems and also lack the energy to regulate their own temperature, so their temperature needs to be maintained by an incubator. We can only give small babies a small amount of food for growing. We want them to use all of their energy for growth rather than wasting it on keeping warm, so sometimes we use the incubator to help them grow faster.<br />
<br />
<img alt="BABY INSIDE INFANT INCUBATOR" src="http://images.jupiterimages.com/common/detail/58/43/23284358.jpg" width="350" /><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">WORKING OF INFANT INCUBATOR</span><br />
<br />
The mattress where the baby lies is completely enclosed by a clear plastic canopy. The temperature in the incubator is increased by a heater element below the mattress. A motor driven fan near the heater draws in fresh air through a filter and blows it past the heater, warming the air. The air is directed up through slots into the area above the mattress and circulated around. The air temperature is monitored by temperature sensors and is adjusted by controlling the current to the heater. The incubator can also monitor the baby’s skin temperature by using a skin temperature probe, which is stuck onto the skin. The user can either set the incubator to control the temperature of the air or to control the temperature of the baby’s skin (servo control mode). Supplementary oxygen can be taken in by an oxygen inlet connection where it is mixed with the fresh air through the filter. The humidity can be increased by the use of water baths (passive humidification) or by dripping water on a heated element (active humidification). The baby is cared for through special access doors called arm ports.<br />
<br />
<img alt="INFANT INCUBATOR PARTS" src="http://www.theage.com.au/ffximage/2007/05/15/0515catherine_incubator_wideweb__470x333,0.jpg" /><br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">UNITS</span> <br />
<br />
Temperature: degrees Celsius <br />
Total gas intake: L/min<br />
Relative Humidity %<br />
Oxygen concentration: %<br />
<br />
<span style="color: blue;">RANGE OF VALUES</span><br />
<br />
Air Temperature: 32 to 38 C°<br />
Baby skin temperature: 34 to 36 C°<br />
Total gas intake: 35 L/min<br />
Relative humidity: 50-100%Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-52848602415231855252009-12-01T04:53:00.000-08:002009-12-01T04:53:25.869-08:00PHOTOTHERAPY <a href="" name="729860575377858644"></a>The phototherapy light shines light onto the baby’s skin. The light must be the correct wavelength (colour) and the correct intensity (brightness). It is used for treating a condition called Jaundice or Hyperbilirubinemia.<br />
<span style="color: blue;">Jaundice or Hyperbilirubinemia</span><br />
<br />
<img alt="JAUNDICE, HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA" src="http://medicalimages.allrefer.com/large/jaundice.jpg" /><br />
<br />
When red blood cells die and are broken down, a chemical called “bilirubin” is produced. Normally the bilirubin is processed by the liver and excreted from the body by the kidneys in the urine. The baby’s liver sometimes cannot process the bilirubin quickly enough and it begins to build up in the blood. Bilirubin is deposited in the skin, whites of the eyes, and mucous membranes (for example the inside of the mouth). When this occurs, the baby appears yellow and is said to be “Jaundiced”. Usually Jaundice disappears in 1-2 weeks and does not require special treatment. Some bilirubin in the blood is normal but when the concentration rises too high it is dangerous hyperbilirubinemia. An excessive level of bilirubin can lead to serious neurological damage such as brain damage and hearing loss.<br />
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<span style="color: blue;">WORKING OF PHOTOTHERAPY</span><br />
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<img alt="BLUE PHOTOTHERAPY" src="http://medicalpointindia.com/images/scan13.jpg" /><br />
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During phototherapy the baby’s skin is exposed to blue light (420 – 500nm). The bilirubin deposited in the skin is “photoisomerised” (changed shape by the light) and becomes water soluble. This is a similar change that occurs normally in the liver. The photoisomerised bilirubin then dissolves back into the blood where it is excreted from the body in urine. The untreated bilirubin in the blood then deposits in the skin and the process continues until all or most of the bilirubin is removed. This happens over a long period of time, usually several days<br />
The effectiveness of the phototherapy depends on: <br />
- the intensity of the therapeutic light <br />
- the wavelength (colour) of the light <br />
- the surface area of skin exposed <br />
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<img alt="BLUE LIGHT PHOTOTHERAPY" src="http://som.flinders.edu.au/FUSA/BME/Clin/BasicEquipment/EquipmentPictures/PhototherapyBlue.JPG" width="500" /><br />
(BLUE LIGHT PHOTOTHERAPY)<br />
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<img alt="BABY EYES PROTECTION IN PHOTOTHERAPY" src="http://static.flickr.com/30/56374887_6d349533b4.jpg" width="500" /><br />
(PROTECTION OF BABY EYES IN PHOTOTHERAPY TREATMENT)<br />
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Some phototherapy lights use white light instead of pure blue. White light contains all the colours but it is only the blue wavelengths that treat the Jaundice.<br />
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<img alt="WHITE LIGHT PHOTOTHERAPY" src="http://www.andamedical.com/products/full/Phototherapy4000.JPG" width="500" /><br />
(WHITE LIGHT PHOTOTHERAPY)<br />
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UNIT : mW/cm2<br />
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<span style="color: blue;">RANGE OF VALUES</span><br />
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Wavelength = 420-500 nm (with the most important wavelength of 470 nm) <br />
Intensity = 8 uW/cm2/nm to 25 uW/cm2/nm <br />
(or) 0.65 mW/cm2 to 2 mW/cm2 (with a blue filter of 80nm bandwidth)Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-75035871356421534382009-12-01T04:48:00.000-08:002009-12-01T04:51:24.717-08:00HEARING AID<div class="post-body"><img alt="EAR HEARING AID PARTS" src="http://www.babyhearing.org/images/HearingAmp/Choices/hearing_aid.jpg" /><br />
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A hearing aid is a device used to help hard-of-hearing people hear sounds better. In the past, a funnel-like amplification cone, called an "ear trumpet" or "ear horn" was used. Also sometimes used was a desk with a built-in amplifier into which a microphone and earphones could be plugged; these worked better than passive ear trumpets but were not portable.<br />
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<img alt="HEARING AID WORKING" src="http://www.hearinglosseducation.com/Images/ed_flow.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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Now, however, the most common style is a small electronic device that fits into the wearer's ear. The first variety of this device had a rectangular battery pack connected by a thin wire, intended to be held in a pocket. Such "body aids," though much more portable than the desk type, still suffered significant disadvantages due to sub-optimal microphone placement. Since the microphone was not near the user's head, it was susceptible to interfering sounds such as clothing-noise. Sound input was also distorted if the microphone was located below the mouth of a person with whom the user was conversing.<br />
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<img alt="HEARING AID PLACEMENT" src="http://www.21stcenturyhearing.com/images/medical_ear_txt.gif" /><br />
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During the mid- to late 20th century, hearing aids that were carried in pockets were replaced by a more inconspicuous sort of model in which small zinc-air batteries were placed in the inserted unit itself. Cutting-edge technology allows for hearing aids so small and stylish they can be mistaken for wireless headsets.<br />
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<img alt="HEARING AID INTERNAL PARTS" src="http://content.answers.com/main/content/img/McGrawHill/Encyclopedia/images/CE309700FG0010.gif" /><br />
<span style="color: blue;">(a) Over-the-ear aid with case open to show internal components. (b) In-the-ear aid. (c) In-the-canal aid. (Belltone Electronics Corp.)</span><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b>Pictures of hearing aids</b></span><br />
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<img alt="TYPES OF HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.merck.com/media/mmhe2/figures/fg218_1.gif" /><br />
<img alt="HEARING AID STYLES" src="http://www.plattevalleyhearing.com/images/Hearing%20Aids.jpg" /><br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b>Types of hearing aids</b></span><br />
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<i><b>Body worn aids</b></i><br />
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This was the first type of hearing aid, and thanks to developments in technology they are now rarely used. These aids consist of a case containing the components of amplification and an ear mold connected to the case by a cord. The case is about the size of a pack of playing cards and is worn in the pocket or on a belt. Because of their large size, body worn aids are capable of large amounts of amplification and were once used for profound hearing losses. Today, body aids have largely been replaced by Behind-The-Ear (BTEs) instruments.<br />
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<img alt="BODY WORN HEARING AIDS PARTS" src="http://www.ndcs.org.uk/images/hi_res/33818_body-worn-aids.jpg" /><br />
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<img alt="BODY WORN HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.ntid.rit.edu/current/audiology/images/CI_manufacturers_2.jpg" /><br />
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<b>Behind the ear aids (BTE)</b><br />
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<img alt="BEHIND EAR HEARING AID" src="http://www.getsafensound.com/images/single_clip.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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BTE aids have a small plastic case that fits behind the ear and conducts sound to the ear canal, usually through an earmold that is custom made. BTEs can be used for mild to profound hearing losses and are especially useful for children because of their durability and ability to connect to assistive listening devices such as classroom FM systems. Their colors range from very inconspicuous skin tones for adults to bright colors and optional decorations for children.<br />
<img alt="BEHIND THE EAR HEARING AID" src="http://www.michiganear.com/library/H/2.jpg" /><br />
<img alt="HEARING AID BEHIND EAR" src="http://www.hearingaidzone.com/aids%20007.jpg" width="500" /><br />
Recent innovations in BTEs include miniature "invisible" BTEs with thin hair-like sound tubes (see open-fit devices below). These are often less visible than In-The-Ear (ITEs) and some keep the ear canal more open so listeners may still utilise their residual natural hearing (most helpful for those with normal hearing in the lower frequencies). Ideal for high frequency losses, these miniature versions are generally used for mild to moderate hearing loss.<br />
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<img alt="COMPARIOSN OF HEARING AID TYPES" src="http://www.hometown-hearing.com/images/about-1.jpg" /><br />
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<i><b>In the ear aids (ITE)</b></i><br />
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<img alt="IN THE EAR HEARING AID" src="http://www.searshearing.ca/images/products/photo_inEar.jpg" /><br />
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<img alt=" IN THE EAR HEARING AID" src="http://www.audiologyonline.com/management/uploads/articles/dybala_fig13.jpg" /><br />
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These devices fit in the outer ear bowl (called the concha);they are sometimes visible when standing face to face with someone.<br />
<img alt="EAR ANATOMY" src="http://www.hearing.on.ca/images/ear-anatomy2.jpg" /><br />
(EAR ANATOMY)<br />
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ITE hearing aids are custom made to fit each individual's ear. They can be used in mild to some severe hearing losses. Feedback, a squealing/whistling caused by sound leaking out of the aid and being amplified again, may be a problem for severe hearing losses. Some modern circuits are able to provide feedback regulation or cancellation to assist with this. <br />
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<img alt="HEARING AID INSIDE EAR" src="http://ohanahearingcare.com/Hearing_Aids/HearingAidPlacingInEar.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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Traditionally, ITEs have not been recommended for young children because their fit could not be as easily modified as the earmold for a BTE, and thus the aid had to be replaced frequently as the child grew. However, there are new ITEs made from a silicone type material that mitigates the need for costly replacements.<br />
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<i><b>Receiver in the ear aids (RITE)</b></i><br />
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At a first glance, these devices are similar to the BTE aid. There is however one crucial difference: The receiver of the hearing aid is placed inside the ear canal of the user and thin electrical wires replaces the acoustic tube of the BTE aid. There are some advantages with this approach: First, the hearing aid receiver is placed further from the hearing aid microphone. This reduces the risk of acoustic feedback (commonly denoted "howl".) Second, the tube connecting the hearing aid and the ear-plug (also commonly referred to as "dome" or ear-mould) can be made extremely thin. This makes it possible to design an even smaller hearing aid that is even more inconspicuous.<br />
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<i><b>In the canal (ITC), mini canal (MIC) and completely in the canal aids (CIC)</b></i><br />
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<img alt="COMPARISON OF CANAL HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.hearingaidpros.com/images/Products-Hearing-Aids.jpg" /><br />
<img alt="HEARING AIDS COMPARISON" src="http://www.hometown-hearing.com/images/about-2.jpg" /><br />
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ITC aids are smaller, filling only the bottom half of the external ear. You usually cannot see very much of this hearing aid when you are face to face with someone.<br />
<img alt="IN THE CANAL HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.searshearing.ca/images/products/photo_inCanal.jpg" /><br />
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MIC and CIC aids are even smaller and often not visible unless you look directly into the wearer's ear. These aids can be used for mild to moderately-severe losses. <br />
<img alt="MINI CANAL HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.earinc.com/shop/images/minicanalfingers.jpg" /><br />
(MINI CANAL HEARING AID)<br />
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CICs are usually not recommended if you have good low frequency hearing as the "plugged up effect" may make your voice resonate (the "occlusion effect").<br />
<img alt="COMPLETELY IN CANAL(CIC) HEARING AID" src="http://www.searshearing.ca/images/products/photo_inCICanal.jpg" /><br />
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<i><b>Open-fit devices</b></i><br />
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<img alt="OPEN FIT HEARING AID" src="http://www.miracle-ear.com/special/ME900open/images/pic_openfit.gif" /><br />
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Recently a new device has come on the market, the "Open-fit" or "Over-the-Ear" OTE Hearing Aid. Usually quite discrete, these are small Behind-the-ear type devices, with a much finer clear tube that runs down into the ear canal. Inside the ear canal, there is a small soft silicone dome or a molded, highly vented acrylic tip that holds the tube in place.<br />
<img alt="OVET THE EAR HEARING AID INSIDE EAR" src="http://www.premiumhearingsolutions.com/images/1377_Open.jpg" /><br />
These devices are designed to reduce the "occlusion effect", which is the amplification of your own voice when your ears are plugged up (try sticking your fingers in your ears and talking). <br />
Conversely they increase the possibility of feedback, and as such are limited to moderate high frequency losses. Open-fit devices are very beneficial for High-Frequency hearing losses, and have been introduced by all major hearing aid companies.<br />
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<i><b>Bone Anchored Hearing Aids (BAHA)</b></i><br />
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The BAHA is a auditory prosthetic which can be surgically implanted. The BAHA uses the skull as a pathway for sound to travel to the inner ear. <br />
<img alt="BONE ANCHORED HEARING AIDS (BAHA)" src="http://www.hei.org/education/health/baha1.gif" /><br />
<img alt="BAHA HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.american-hearing.org/disorders/hearing/images/BAHA/Baha-Divino-TM-small.jpg" /><br />
For people with conductive losses, the BAHA, bypasses the external auditory canal and middle ear, stimulating the functioning cochlea. For people with unilateral hearing loss, the BAHA uses the skull to conduct the sound from the deaf side to the side with the functioning cochlea.<br />
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<img alt="Bone Anchored Hearing Aids (BAHA)" src="http://www.ent.uci.edu/images/BAHA.h5.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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Individuals under the age of 5 typically wear the BAHA device on a headband. Over age 5, a titanium "post" can be surgically embedded into the skull with a small abutment exposed outside the skin. The BAHA sound processor sits on this abutment and transmits sound vibrations to the external abutment of the titanium implant. The implant vibrates the skull and inner ear, which stimulate the nerve fibers of the inner ear, allowing hearing.<br />
<img alt="BAHA HEARING AID" src="http://www.childsdoc.org/fall96/young/figure1.jpg" /><br />
(BAHA HEARING AID)<br />
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<b>Eyeglass aids</b><br />
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During the late 1950s through 1970s, before in-the-ear aids became common (and in an era when thick-rimmed eyeglasses were popular), people who wore both spectacles and hearing aids frequently chose a type of hearing aid that was built into the temple pieces of the spectacles. However, the combination of glasses and hearing aids was inflexible: the range of frame styles was limited, and the user had to wear both hearing aids and glasses at once or wear neither. Today, most people who use both glasses and hearing aids simply use in-the-ear types. There still are some specialized situations where hearing aids built into the frame of eyeglasses can be useful, such as when a person has hearing loss mainly in one ear: sound from a microphone on the "bad" side can be sent through the frame to the side with better hearing.<br />
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This can also be achieved by using CROS or bi-CROS style hearing aids, which are now wireless in sending sound from the "bad" or "worse" side to the better side. These types of hearing aids are much more frequently used than any eyeglass style.<br />
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<img alt="EYEGLASS HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.american-hearing.org/disorders/hearing/images/BAHA/Baha-Divino-TM-small.jpg" /><br />
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Recently, a new type of eyeglass aid has been introduced by the Dutch company Varibel. These 'hearing glasses' feature directional sensitivity: four microphones on each side of the frame effectively work as two directional microphones, which are able to discern between sound coming from the front and sound coming from the sides or back of the user. This allows for amplification of the sound coming from the front, the direction in which the user is looking, and suppression of sound coming from the sides or back. Only very recently has the technology required become small enough, in size, to be put in the frame of the glasses. As a recent addition to the market, the geographical market for this particular hearing aid is currently limited to a few European countries.<br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b>Hearing aid technology</b></span><br />
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<b>Wireless</b><br />
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Recent hearing aids include wireless hearing aids. One hearing aid can transmit to the other side so that pressing one aid's program button simultaneously changes the other aid and both aids change background settings simultaneously. FM listening systems are now emerging with wireless receivers integrated with the use of hearing aids. A separate wireless microphone can be given to a partner to wear in a restaurant, in the car or in another room. The voice is transmitted wirelessly to the hearing aids reducing the effects of distance and background noise.<br />
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<img alt="WIRELESS HEARING AIDS" src="http://www.audiologyonline.com/management/uploads/articles/valente_SSD_fig2.gif" /><br />
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Many theatres and lecture halls are now equipped with assistive listening systems that transmit the sound directly from the stage; audience members can borrow suitable receivers and hear the program without background noise.<br />
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<img alt="WIRELESS HEARING AID TECHNOLOGY" src="http://forte.fh-hagenberg.at/Project-Homepages/Blindenhund/conferences/granada/papers/VANREISEN/vanRiesen%20%28WORD%20print%20screen%29_bestanden/image004.jpg" /><br />
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<b>Directional microphones</b><br />
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Directional microphones are currently the best way to improve the signal to noise ratio, and thus, improve speech clarity in noise for the wearer.<br />
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Many hearing aids now have directional microphones, which can be a major improvement in crowded places such as restaurants and open-plan offices, because the directional microphone allows the user to focus on whoever is directly in front with reduced interference from conversations behind and to the sides. It is common for such a hearing aid to have both a directional microphone and an omnidirectional microphone and a switch that lets the user choose between hearing in all directions versus hearing only in the direction his or her head is facing. Some more-advanced models can electronically subtract signals so the user hears the directional signal minus the omnidirectional signal for improved background noise rejection.<br />
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Adaptive directional microphones are a further sophistication of the concept. The hearing aid processor is able to distinguish noise as opposed to speech and automatically reduce the particular noise source from a certain angle. The limitations are at the identification level, where a noise that behaves similarly to a speech signal is difficult to identify, thus reducing efficacy. In severe background noise, the directional microphone is less efficient, however benefits may still exist.<br />
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The recently introduced eyeglass aid by the Dutch company Varibel uses four microphones on each side of the frame of a pair of glasses that, together, work as two directional microphones. Technology inside the frame is able to discern between sounds coming from the front and sounds coming from the sides or back, amplifying the sound which is coming from the direction in which the user looks, suppressing other sounds. It should be noted that these hearing aid glasses are not used by most hearing professionals due to their vulnerability to damage and the difficulty that occurs when repairs have to be made. It is very hard to find local manufacturers that still have the tools/pieces needed for any repairs.<br />
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<i><b>Telecoil</b></i><br />
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Telecoils (T-coils) allow different sound sources to be directly connected to the hearing aid, improving sound quality and allowing the hearing aid wearer to easily perceive the intended signal regardless of background noise. They can be used with telephones, FM systems, induction loop systems and public address systems. Such hearing loop systems are widely used in public places such as churches, shops and railway stations in the UK and some Scandinavian countries.<br />
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<img alt="TELECIL HEARING AID" src="http://forte.fh-hagenberg.at/Project-Homepages/Blindenhund/conferences/granada/papers/VANREISEN/vanRiesen%20%28WORD%20print%20screen%29_bestanden/image004.jpg" /><br />
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T-coils are comprised of a metal core (or rod) around which ultra-fine wire is coiled. T-coils are also called induction coils because when the coil is placed in an electromagnetic (EM) field, an alternating electrical current is induced in the wire (Ross, 2002b; Ross, 2004). The T-coil detects EM energy and transduces (or converts) it to electrical energy. T-coils can also be used to pick up magnetic signals, just as a microphone picks up an acoustic signal; the T-coil then sends the signal to the hearing aid circuit or processor for amplification.<br />
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A problem with T-coils is that they pickup lot of buzz too. In many places there are many sources of electromagnetic fields, such as computers, electric cables, cellphones etc.<br />
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<b>DAI</b><br />
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Direct Audio Input (DAI) allows the hearing aid to be connected to an external audio source like a CD player or an assistive listening device (ALD).This is preferred by many users, as opposed to using a T-coil with a standard set of headphones, as there is less interference (usually heard as a buzzing noise).<br />
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<img alt="DIA EAR PLUG" src="http://www.centrumsound.com/images/fig8.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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<b>Processing</b><br />
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The inside mechanisms of hearing aids vary among devices, even if they are the same style. Three types of circuitry, or electronics, are used:<br />
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<i><b>Analog/Adjustable: </b></i><br />
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The hearing professional (Audiometrist, Hearing Instrument Specialist, Hearing Aid Dispenser, or Audiologist) determines the volume and other specifications required for the patient's hearing aid, and then a laboratory builds the aid to meet those specifications. The hearing professional retains some flexibility to make adjustments. This type of circuitry is generally the least expensive and also the least effective. Many manufacturers have actually discontinued their analog devices. <br />
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<i><b>Analog/Programmable: </b></i><br />
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<img alt="ANALOG HEARING AID PROCESSING" src="http://www.hearingaidscentral.com/Images/analogue-vs-digital3.gif" /><br />
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The hearing professional uses a computer to program the hearing aid. The circuitry of analog/programmable hearing aids will accommodate more than one program or setting. If the aid is equipped with a remote control device, the wearer can change the program to accommodate a given listening environment. Analog/programmable circuitry can be used in all types of hearing aids.<br />
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<i><b>Digital/Programmable: </b></i><br />
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<img alt="DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING OF HEARING AID" src="http://www.hearingcentral.com/Images/analogue-vs-digital2.gif" /><br />
The hearing professional programs the hearing aid with a computer and can adjust the sound quality and response time on an individual basis. Digital hearing aids use a microphone, receiver, battery, and computer chip. Digital circuitry provides the most flexibility for the hearing professional to make adjustments for the hearing aid. <br />
<img alt="DSP HEARING AID" src="http://focus.ti.com/graphics/vf/medical/medical_hearing_aid.gif" /><br />
Digital circuitry can be used in all types of hearing aids and is typically the most expensive. However, digital hearing aids can be specially programmed with multiple programs for quiet situations, background noise reduction, music listening, and directionality. Many also have more powerful feedback-reduction and/or cancellation technology. Among digital hearing instruments, some companies are providing hardwired configurable platform, while others are providing software programable platform based on the utilization of a programable low power DSP.<br />
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<span style="color: blue;"><b>Adjustment to Hearing Aids</b></span><br />
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For the majority of users, hearing aids will not completely restore or fix hearing loss; they are an aid to make sounds accessible to those who have hearing loss. Two problems occur with hearing loss that cannot be assisted by hearing aids:<br />
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<img alt="AUDITROY CORTEX" src="http://pine.psych.cornell.edu/educational/brain_areas/auditory_cortex.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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i.)When the auditory cortex of the brain does not receive input/stimulation (i.e. what happens in hearing loss), this part of the brain may start to lose cells, and the ability to process sound. This is most common with more severe hearing losses, and cannot be reversed with hearing aids. Although this cell loss is worse in severe hearing loss, it is seen in all amounts of hearing loss and is caused by sensory deprivation.<br />
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<img alt="HAIR CELLS IN INNER EAR" src="http://media.npr.org/programs/atc/features/2005/feb/hearing/ear.gif" /><br />
ii.)Damage to the hair cells of the inner ear result in sensorineural hearing loss. When these hair cells are damaged, a person loses some ability to discriminate between sounds. This will likely cause decreased ability to understand speech. In this case, amplifying speech (as a hearing aid does) does not always improve speech understanding.<br />
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Multiple follow-up visits are common, particularly for new hearing aid users. The most common complaint about hearing aids, especially when someone starts wearing them for the first time, is that the sound of their own voice is too loud or that it sounds like they are talking into a barrel. Most hearing aid users will adjust to the sound of their own voices within several months if the aids are worn regularly. If the problem persists, ask your dispenser or audiologist if any adjustments can be made to the hearing aid.<br />
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</script>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-1771108914670850742009-12-01T04:41:00.001-08:002009-12-01T04:41:51.633-08:00ARTIFICIAL ORGANSAn artificial organ is a man-made organ that is implanted into, or integrated onto, a human to replace a natural organ, for the purpose of restoring a specific function or a group of related functions so the patient may return to as normal a life as possible. The replaced function doesn't necessarily have to be related to life support, but often is.<br />
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Implied by this definition is the fact that the device must not need to be continuously tethered to a stationary power supply, or other stationary resources, such as filters or chemical processing units. (Periodic rapid recharging of batteries, refilling of chemicals, and/or cleaning/replacing of filters, would not exclude a device from being called an artificial organ.) Thus a dialysis machine, while a very successful and critically important life support device that completely replaces the duties of a kidney, is not an artificial organ. At this time a successful portable self-contained artificial kidney has not become available.<br />
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Reasons to construct and install an artificial organ, an extremely expensive process initially, which may entail many years of ongoing maintenance services not needed by a natural organ, might include:<br />
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1.) Life support to prevent imminent death while awaiting a transplant (e.g. artificial heart) <br />
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<img alt="ARTIFICIAL HEART" src="http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/09/06/gallery/artificialheart_zoom.jpg" /><br />
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2.)Dramatic improvement of the patient's ability for self care (e.g. artificial limb) <br />
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<img alt="ARTIFICIAL LIMB" src="http://www.madehow.com/images/hpm_0000_0001_0_img0013.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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3.)Improvement of the patient's ability to interact socially (e.g. cochlear implant) <br />
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<img src="http://www.childrensspecialists.com/images/medicalinfo/cochlear_implant.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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4.)Cosmetic restoration after cancer surgery or accident <br />
The use of any artificial organ by humans is almost always preceded by extensive experiments with animals. Initial testing in humans is frequently limited to those either already facing death, or who have exhausted every other treatment possibility. (Rarely testing may be done on healthy volunteers who are scheduled for execution pertaining to violent crimes.)<br />
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Although not typically thought of as organs, one might also consider replacement bone, and joints thereof, such as hip replacements, in this context.<br />
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<img alt="ARTIFICIAL HIP REPLACEMENT" src="http://www.arc.org.uk/arthinfo/patpubs/6018/images/6018_1.gif" width="500" /><br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL CARDIA</strong><br />
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The name might imply the heart, but this pertains to gastric repairs, specifically of the valves at either end of the stomach.<br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL EYE</strong><br />
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The most successful function-replacing artificial eye so far is actually an external miniature digital camera with a remote unidirectional electronic interface implanted on the retina, optic nerve, or other related locations inside the brain. The present state of the art yields only very partial functionality, such as recognizing levels of brightness, swatches of color, and/or basic geometric shapes, proving the concept's potential. While the living eye is indeed a camera, it is also much more than that.<br />
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<img alt="artificial eye" src="http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/725000/images/_726805_artificial_eye2_inf300.gif" width="500" /><br />
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Various researchers have demonstrated that the retina performs strategic image preprocessing for the brain. The problem of creating a 100% functional artificial electronic eye is even more complex than what is already obvious. Steadily increasing complexity of the artificial connection to the retina, optic nerve or related brain areas advances, combined with ongoing advances in computer science, is expected to dramatically improve the performance of this technology.<br />
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For the person whose damaged or diseased living eye retains some function, other options superior to the electronic eye described above may be available.<br />
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None of the current devices presents the cosmetic appearance of a living eye. <br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL HEART</strong><br />
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While considered a success, the use of <a href="http://mybiomedical.blogspot.com/2007/08/artificial-heart-heart-assist-devices.html" target="NEW">artificial hearts </a>is limited to patients awaiting transplants whose death is imminent. The current state of the art devices are unable to reliably sustain life beyond about 18 months.<br />
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<img alt="ARTIFICIAL HEART" src="http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/09/06/gallery/artificialheart_zoom.jpg" /><br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKERS</strong> <br />
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These electronic devices, which can either intermittently augment (defibrillator mode), continuously augment, or completely bypass the natural living cardiac pacemaker as needed, are so successful, they have become common place.<br />
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<img alt="artificial pacemaker" src="http://www.merck.com/media/mmhe2/figures/fg027_2.gif" width="500" /><br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL ARMS</strong><br />
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Artificial arms with semi-functional hands, some even fitted with working opposable "thumbs" plus 2 "fingers", and legs with shock absorbing feet capable of allowing a trained patient to even run, have become available. <br />
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<img src="http://www.virtualworldlets.net/Worlds/Listings/AugmentedReality/ArtificialArm.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL URINARY BLADDER </strong><br />
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This represents a unique success in that these are autologous laboratory-grown living replacements, as opposed to most other artificial organs which depend upon electro-mechanical contrivances, and may or may not incorporate any living tissue.<br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL PANCREAS</strong><br />
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For the treatment of diabetes, numerous promising techniques are currently being tested, including some that incorporate donated living tissue housed in special materials to prevent the patient's immune system from killing the foreign live components.<br />
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<strong>BRAIN PACEMAKER</strong><br />
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These devices, including deep brain stimulators, send electrical impulses to the brain in order to relieve depression, epilepsy, tremors of Parkinson's disease, and other conditions. Rather than replacing existing neural networks to restore function, these devices often serve by disrupting the output of existing malfunctioning nerve centers to eliminate symptoms.<br />
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<img alt="BRAIN PACEMAKER" src="http://www.georgetownuniversityhospital.org/images/pacemakerarticle.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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<strong>ARTIFICIAL CORPORA CAVERNOSA</strong><br />
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To treat erectile disfunction, both corpora cavernosa can be irreversibly surgically replaced with manually inflatable penile implants. This is a drastic therapeutic surgery meant only for men suffering from complete impotence that has resisted all other treatment approaches.<br />
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<img alt="ARTIFICIAL CORPORA CAVERNOSA" src="http://www.emedicine.com/med/images/685230ausnew.jpg" /><br />
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An implanted pump in the groin or scrotum can be manipulated by hand to fill these artificial cylinders, normally sized to be direct replacements for the natural corpus cavernosa, from an implanted reservoir in order to achieve an erection.<br />
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<strong>RESTORATION</strong><br />
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It is also possible to construct and install an artificial organ to give its possessor abilities which are not naturally occurring. While research is proceeding, particularly in areas of vision, memory, and information processing, this idea is presently more in the realm of science fiction than science fact.<br />
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Current research focuses on restoring inoperative short-term memory in accident victims and lost access to long-term memory in dementia patients. Success here would lead to widespread interest in applications for persons whose memory is considered healthy to dramatically enhance their memory of far beyond what can be achieved with mnemonic techniques. Given that our understanding of how living memory actually works is incomplete, it is unlikely this scenario will become reality in the near future.<br />
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One idea with significant consequences is that of implanting a Language Translator for diplomatic and military applications. While machine translation does exist, it is presently neither good nor small enough to fulfill its promise.<br />
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This might also include the existing (and controversial when applied to humans) practice of implanting subcutaneous "chips" (integrated circuits) for identification and location purposes. An example of this is the RFID tags made by VeriChip Corporation.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7631815965864896053.post-49103548261074986042009-12-01T04:38:00.000-08:002009-12-01T04:38:56.046-08:00MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS<img alt="MEMS CHIPS" src="http://eed.gsfc.nasa.gov/562/SA_mems_mic_die.jpg" width="250" /><br />
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Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) is the technology of the very small, and merges at the nano-scale into "Nanoelectromechanical" Systems (NEMS) and Nanotechnology.<br />
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MEMS are also referred to as micro machines, or Micro Systems Technology (MST). MEMS are separate and distinct from the hypothetical vision of Molecular nanotechnology or Molecular Electronics.<br />
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<img alt="MEMS DEVICES" src="http://images.pennnet.com/articles/lfw/thm/th_0704lfwnews02.gif" /><br />
(MEMS DEVICE)<br />
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MEMS generally range in size from a micrometer (a millionth of a meter) to a millimeter (thousandth of a meter). At these size scales, the standard constructs of classical physics do not always hold true. Due to MEMS' large surface area to volume ratio, surface effects such as electrostatics and wetting dominate volume effects such as inertia or thermal mass. Finite element analysis is an important part of MEMS design.<br />
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<img alt="MEMS SIZES" src="http://www.sustainpack.com/images/scales.gif" /><br />
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The potential of very small machines was appreciated long before the technology existed that could make them—see, for example, Feynmann's famous 1959 lecture There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom. MEMS became practical once they could be fabricated using modified semiconductor fabrication technologies, normally used to make electronics. These include molding and plating, wet etching (KOH, TMAH) and dry etching (RIE and DRIE), electro discharge machining (EDM), and other technologies capable of manufacturing very small devices.<br />
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<img alt="MEMS TECHNOLOGY" src="http://www.mmc.or.jp/e/outline-e/parts/image9.gif" /><br />
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Companies with strong MEMS programs come in many sizes. The larger firms specialize in manufacturing high volume inexpensive components or packaged solutions for end markets such as automobiles, biomedical, and electronics. The successful small firms provide value in innovative solutions and absorb the expense of custom fabrication with high sales margins. In addition, both large and small companies work in R&D to explore MEMS technology.<br />
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<img alt="MEMS SOFTWARES" src="http://www.chipdesignmag.com/images/articles/18/dasei_table1.gif" /><br />
(MEMS SOFTWARES)<br />
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<strong>MEMS MATERIALS</strong><br />
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MEMS technology can be implemented using a number of different materials and manufacturing techniques; the choice of which will depend on the device being created and the market sector in which it has to operate.<br />
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<img alt="MEMS MATERIALS" src="http://www.elecdesign.com/Files/29/4560/Table_01.gif" /><br />
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<strong>Silicon</strong><br />
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Silicon is the material used to create most integrated circuits used in consumer electronics in the modern world. The economies of scale, ready availability of cheap high-quality materials and ability to incorporate electronic functionality make silicon attractive for a wide variety of MEMS applications. <br />
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<img alt="SILCION MEMS" src="http://www.emeraldinsight.com/fig/2180200103001.png" width="500" /><br />
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Silicon also has significant advantages engendered through its material properties. In single crystal form, silicon is an almost perfect Hookean material, meaning that when it is flexed there is virtually no hysteresis and hence almost no energy dissipation. As well as making for highly repeatable motion, this also makes silicon very reliable as it suffers very little fatigue and can have service lifetimes in the range of billions to trillions of cycles without breaking. The basic techniques for producing all silicon based MEMS devices are deposition of material layers, patterning of these layers by lithography and then etching to produce the required shapes.<br />
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<strong>Polymers</strong><br />
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Even though the electronics industry provides an economy of scale for the silicon industry, crystalline silicon is still a complex and relatively expensive material to produce. Polymers on the other hand can be produced in huge volumes, with a great variety of material characteristics. MEMS devices can be made from polymers by processes such as injection moulding, embossing or stereolithography and are especially well suited to microfluidic applications such as disposable blood testing cartridges.<br />
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<img alt="POLYMER MEMS DEVICES, MATERIALS" src="http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/img2/nea0307eur1fig.jpg" /><br />
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<strong>Metals</strong><br />
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Metals can also be used to create MEMS elements. While metals do not have some of the advantages displayed by silicon in terms of mechanical properties, when used within their limitations, metals can exhibit very high degrees of reliability.<br />
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Metals can be deposited by electroplating, evaporation, and sputtering processes.<br />
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Commonly used metals include Gold, Nickel, Aluminum, Chromium, Titanium, Tungsten, Platinum and Silver.<br />
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<strong>MEMS PROCESS</strong><br />
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<em>Deposition processes</em><br />
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One of the basic building blocks in MEMS processing is the ability to deposit thin films of material. In this text we assume a thin film to have a thickness anywhere between a few nanometers to about 100 micrometers. Commonly used deposition processes are: Electroplating, Sputter deposition, Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) and Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD). The Chemical Vapor Deposition Process is a very intricate process which takes place in several steps.<br />
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<em>Photolithography</em><br />
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Lithography in MEMS context is typically the transfer of a pattern to a photosensitive material by selective exposure to a radiation source such as light. A photosensitive material is a material that experiences a change in its physical properties when exposed to a radiation source. If we selectively expose a photosensitive material to radiation (e.g. by masking some of the radiation) the pattern of the radiation on the material is transferred to the material exposed, as the properties of the exposed and unexposed regions differs.<br />
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This exposed region can then be removed or treated providing a mask for the underlying substrate. Photolithography is typically used with metal or other thin film deposition, wet and dry etching.<br />
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<em>Etching processes</em><br />
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There are two basic categories of etching processes: wet and dry etching. In the former, the material is dissolved when immersed in a chemical solution. In the latter, the material is sputtered or dissolved using reactive ions or a vapor phase etchant.<br />
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<em>Wet etching</em><br />
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Wet chemical etching consists in a selective removal of material by dipping a substrate into a solution that can dissolve it. Due to the chemical nature of this etching process, a good selectivity can often be obtained, which means that the etching rate of the target material is considerably higher than that of the mask material if selected carefully.<br />
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Some single crystal materials, such as silicon, will have different etching rates depending on the crystallographic orientation of the substrate. One of the most common examples is the etching of silicon in KOH (potassium hydroxide), where Si <111> planes etch approximately 100 times slower than other planes (crystallographic orientations). Therefore, etching a rectangular hole in a (100)-Si wafer will result in a pyramid shaped etch pit with 54.7° walls, instead of a hole with curved sidewalls as it would be the case for isotropic etching, where etching progresses at the same speed in all directions. Long and narrow holes in a mask will produce v-shaped grooves in the silicon. The surface of these grooves can be atomically smooth if the etch is carried out correctly, with dimensions and angles being extremely accurate.<br />
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Electrochemical etching (ECE) for dopant-selective removal of silicon is a common method to automate and to selective control etching. An active p-n diode junction is required, and either type of dopant can be the etch-resistant ("etch-stop") material. Boron is the most common etch-stop dopant. In combination with wet anisotropic etching as described above, ECE has be used successfully for controlling silicon diaphragm thickness in commercial piezoresistive silicon pressure sensors. Selectively doped regions can be created either by implantation, diffusion, or epitaxial deposition of silicon.<br />
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<em>Reactive ion etching (RIE)</em><br />
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In reactive ion etching (RIE), the substrate is placed inside a reactor in which several gases are introduced. A plasma is struck in the gas mixture using an RF power source, breaking the gas molecules into ions. The ions are accelerated towards, and reacts at, the surface of the material being etched, forming another gaseous material. This is known as the chemical part of reactive ion etching. There is also a physical part which is similar in nature to the sputtering deposition process. If the ions have high enough energy, they can knock atoms out of the material to be etched without a chemical reaction. It is a very complex task to develop dry etch processes that balance chemical and physical etching, since there are many parameters to adjust. By changing the balance it is possible to influence the anisotropy of the etching, since the chemical part is isotropic and the physical part highly anisotropic the combination can form sidewalls that have shapes from rounded to vertical.<br />
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<em>Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE)</em><br />
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A special subclass of RIE which continues to grow rapidly in popularity is deep RIE (DRIE). In this process, etch depths of hundreds of micrometres can be achieved with almost vertical sidewalls. The primary technology is based on the so-called "Bosch process", named after the German company Robert Bosch which filed the original patent, where two different gas compositions are alternated in the reactor. The first gas composition creates a polymer on the surface of the substrate, and the second gas composition etches the substrate. The polymer is immediately sputtered away by the physical part of the etching, but only on the horizontal surfaces and not the sidewalls. Since the polymer only dissolves very slowly in the chemical part of the etching, it builds up on the sidewalls and protects them from etching. As a result, etching aspect ratios of 50 to 1 can be achieved. The process can easily be used to etch completely through a silicon substrate, and etch rates are 3-4 times higher than wet etching.<br />
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<em>Xenon difluoride etching</em><br />
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Xenon difluoride (XeF2) is a dry vapor phase isotropic etch for silicon originally applied for MEMS in 1995 at University of California, Los Angeles. Primarily used for releasing metal and dielectric structures by undercutting silicon, XeF2 has the advantage of a stiction-free release unlike wet etchants. Its etch selectivity to silicon is very high, allowing it to work with photoresist, SiO2, silicon nitride, and various metals for masking. Its reaction to silicon is "plasmaless", is purely chemical and spontaneous and is often operated in pulsed mode. Models of the etching action are available, and university laboratories and various commercial tools offer solutions using this approach.<br />
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<strong>Silicon MEMS paradigms</strong><br />
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Bulk micromachining<br />
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Bulk micromachining is the oldest paradigm of silicon based MEMS. The whole thickness of a silicon wafer is used for building the micro-mechanical structures. Silicon is machined using various etching processes. Anodic bonding of glass plates or additional silicon wafers is used for adding features in the third dimension and for hermetic encapsulation. Bulk micromachining has been essential in enabling high performance pressure sensors and accelerometers that have changed the shape of the sensor industry in the 80's and 90's.<br />
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Surface micromachining<br />
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Surface micromachining uses layers deposited on the surface of a substrate as the structural materials, rather than using the substrate itself. Surface micromachining was created in the late 80's to render micromachining of silicon more compatible with planar integrated circuit technology, with the goal of combining MEMS and integrated circuits on the same silicon wafer. The original surface micromachining concept was based on thin polycrystalline silicon layers patterned as movable mechanical structures and released by sacrificial etching of the underlaying oxide layer. Interdigital comb electrodes were used to produce in-plane forces and to detect in-plane movement capacitively. This MEMS paradigm has enabled the manufacturing of low cost accelerometers for e.g. automotive air-bag systems and other applications where low performance and/ or high g-ranges are sufficient. Analog Devices have pioneered the industrialization of surface micromachining and have realized the co-integration of MEMS and integrated circuits.<br />
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High aspect ratio (HAR) micromachining<br />
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Both bulk and surface micromachining are still used in industrial production of sensors, ink-jet nozzles and other devices. But in many cases the distinction between these two has diminished. New etching technology, deep reactive ion etching has made it possible to combine good performance typical to bulk micromachining with comb structures and in-plane operation typical to surface micromachining. While it is common in surface micromachining to have structural layer thickness in the range of 2 µm, in HAR micromachining the thickness is from 10 to 100 µm. The materials commonly used in HAR micromachining are thick polycrystalline silicon, known as epi-poly, and bonded silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers although processes for bulk silicon wafer also have been created (SCREAM). Bonding a second wafer by glass frit bonding, anodic bonding or alloy bonding is used to protect the MEMS structures. Integrated circuits are typically not combined with HAR micromachining. The consensus of the industry at the moment seems to be that the flexibility and reduced process complexity obtained by having the two functions separated far outweighs the small penalty in packaging.<br />
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<img alt="MEMS DEVELOPMENT CYCLE" src="http://www.integramplus.com/INTEGRAM/Library0.nsf/LookupUNID/5E99DA9309C2D73E802570CF0033CACC/$File/modified%20offer2.jpg" width="500" /><br />
(MEMS DEVELOPMENT CYCLE)<br />
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<strong>Applications</strong><br />
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Common applications include:<br />
1.)Inkjet printers, which use piezoelectrics or thermal bubble ejection to deposit ink on paper.<br />
2.)Accelerometers in modern cars for a large number of purposes including airbag deployment in collisions.<br />
3.)MEMS gyroscopes used in modern cars and other applications to detect yaw; e.g. to deploy a roll over bar or trigger dynamic stability control.<br />
4.)Silicon pressure sensors e.g. car tire pressure sensors, and disposable blood pressure sensors.<br />
5.)Displays e.g the DMD chip in a projector based on DLP technology has on its surface several hundred thousand micromirrors.<br />
6.)Optical switching technology which is used for switching technology and alignment for data communications.<br />
7.)Bio-MEMS applications in medical and health related technologies from Lab-On-Chip to MicroTotalAnalysis.<br />
<img alt="SILICON MEMS IN OPTICAL NETWORKING" src="http://ncem.lbl.gov/team/presentations/Eaglesham/img033.jpg" width="500" /><br />
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<img alt="MEMS GYROSCOPES" src="http://www.cchem.berkeley.edu/rmgrp/about_mems.jpg" width="550" /><br />
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<strong>MEMS Research and Developments</strong><br />
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Researchers in MEMS use various Engineering S/W tools to take a design from concept to simulation, prototyping and testing Some common tools are ANSYS and COMSOL for simulation of dynamics, heat, electrical and other domains. Then they use some s/w like MEMS-PRO to carry out the design layout that is deliverable to a fabrication firm. Once a prototype is on-hand they test the specimens using various instruments and techniques; the most powerful being Laser Doppler Scanning Vibrometer from Polytec, microscopes, stroboscopes, topographic analysis and others.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/10230825386107721737noreply@blogger.com0